Overview of Geology in the Second Phase of Science Popularization Course of Zhangye National Geopark
A Brief History of the Development of Geology
Human beings have a long history of observing and describing geological phenomena. However, as a science, geology matured relatively late, and it is generally believed that modern geology was not established until 1840. The development history of geology can be divided into six stages according to the degree of development of geological knowledge and its social and cultural background.
1、 The budding period (ancient times - 1450 AD)
Human understanding of the properties of rocks and minerals can be traced back to ancient times. In China, copper mining reached a considerable scale more than 2000 years ago. Some chapters in the "Classic of Mountains and Seas", "Yu Gong", and "Guan Zi" written during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, as well as works such as the "Stone Theory" (4th century BC) by Theophrastus of ancient Greece, are the earliest summaries of human knowledge of rock and mineral resources.
In mining and fighting against natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and floods, people have gradually recognized geological processes and given speculative and speculative explanations. The description of "high banks as valleys and deep valleys as tombs" in the Chinese "Book of Songs, Xiaoya, The Turn of October" reflects the understanding of geological processes at that time. Aristotle of ancient Greece proposed, The changes of land and sea occur in a certain period according to certain laws "During the long medieval period, the development of science in Europe was slow. During this period, Shen Kuo of China gave a relatively correct explanation of land and sea changes, paleoclimate changes, and the nature of fossils. Zhu Xi also scientifically explained the origin of fossils. In Sichuan, natural gas drilling reached a depth of more than 1000 kilometers, indicating that ancient China's engineering geological technology had reached a certain level.".
2、 Founding Period (1450-1750 AD)
The Renaissance in Europe was a turning point in the development of science and culture. During this period, the history of the Earth began to have a relatively scientific explanation. Leonardo da Vinci of Italy, Stano N of Denmark, Woodward J of the United Kingdom, and Hooker R of the United Kingdom have all demonstrated the biological origin of fossils. Hooker also proposed that fossils could be used to record the history of the Earth (1705). Stano proposed the stratigraphic sequence law (1669). In terms of petrology and mineralogy, Li Shizhen of China recorded over 200 minerals, rocks, and fossils in the Compendium of Materia Medica (1578). The study of minerals, the formation process of ore veins, and the role of water in mineralization by the German Agricola G pioneered the study of mineralogy and mineral deposits in Germany, and has a far-reaching impact in Europe.
3、 Formation period (1750 AD - 1840 AD)
Driven and influenced by the British Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Enlightenment ideology, scientific exploration and adventure travel have sprung up in Europe. Travel and exploration have made the Earth's crust the object of direct research, transforming people's understanding of the Earth from speculative speculation to empirical research based on field observations. In China, "Xu Xiake's Travels", which appeared in the 17th century, is a transcendental achievement obtained through natural exploration.
Field observation materials from different regions have led researchers to form different perspectives and schools of thought. During this period, disputes between schools were very active, not only enriching geological knowledge, but also promoting the formation of a scientific system of geology. The controversy over the hydrogenetic and igneous theories of strata and rock genesis was very intense in the late 18th century. Werner AG of Germany is the representative of the theory of water formation. He proposed that both granite and basalt were formed by sedimentation, and made a systematic division of rock layers based on the geology of the Saxon area (1787). Hutton J of England is the representative of the theory of igneous formation. He believed that crystalline rock was formed after molten material from deep underground rose to the surface and crystallized. Layered rocks are seafloor sediments that are subjected to upper pressure and core thermal action, consolidated into rock, and then uplifted to form land (1785, 1795). The dispute between water and fire promoted the separation of geology from cosmology, natural history, and ancient mineralogy, and gradually formed an independent discipline. In the first half of the 19th century, the debate about catastrophe theory and uniform change theory had a historic impact on the thinking methods of geology. In the debate, the theory of uniform variation has gradually become the orthodox viewpoint of geology and its research methods for over a hundred years.
In addition, in terms of paleontology and stratigraphy, due to research by Smith W (1815) of the United Kingdom, Curie G (1812) of France, and Lamarck J-B de M (1815-1822) of France, by 1840, the principles and methods of stratigraphic division had been established, and the geological era and stratigraphic system had been basically established. Mineralogy has developed along the direction of morphological mineralogy and mineral chemistry. The "Mineralogical System" (1837) of the United States, Dana JD, marks the maturity of classical mineralogy. In 1829, British Nichol W. invented the polarizing microscope, making the rapid development of micrographics possible in the second half of the 19th century. In 1829, Beaumont E de of France proposed the contraction theory of the earth's cold contraction and orogeny, which had a significant impact on the tectonic theory of the past century.
During this period, a geological system consisting of paleontology and stratigraphy related to the history of the Earth, petrology and mineralogy related to the composition of crustal materials, and tectonic geological theories related to crustal movement gradually formed. In particular, the "uniform variation theory" has been established as the basic idea and methodology of geological science. Therefore, it can be considered that the work of establishing geology has been completed.
4、 Development period (1840 AD - 1910 AD)
With the development of industrialization, various industrial advanced countries have carried out regional geological surveys, which have led to the development of geology from regional geology to global tectonics, and promoted the rapid establishment and development of various branches of geology. Important among them are the research on glaciology by JLR et al. in Agassi, Switzerland (1837, 1840), and the crustal equilibrium theory proposed by GB (1855) and JH (1859) in the UK. The theory of the geosyncline formed by the mountains was finally established through the efforts of Hall (1859) and Dana JD (1873) in the United States. The concept of orogenic cycles proposed by MA Bertrand of France (1887), the division of geosynclinal systems and continental regions by Auger G-E (1900), and the division of geosynclinal types by WH Stiller of Germany (1924) have further improved the theory of orogeny. Austria's Seuss E and Russia's Karbinsky A π have conducted systematic research on the platform. The study of the Alpine tectonics has promoted the study of global tectonics. "The Face of the Earth" (1883-1909) by Hughes E is a summary of geological research in the 19th century. At the same time, the comprehensive analysis method used by Xiusi to study the temporal and spatial relationship of crustal movement from a global perspective foreshadows the arrival of a new era of geological research in the 20th century.
5、 The Development of Geology in the 20th Century (AD 1910 - AD 1970)
Since the 20th century, the development of society and industry has led to the formation of independent branches of petroleum geology, hydrogeology, and engineering geology. At the same time, with the steady development of various basic disciplines in geology, due to the mutual penetration of various branch disciplines, the combination of basic sciences such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, and geology, and the adoption of new technology and methods, a series of marginal disciplines have emerged.
Geochemistry was founded by Goldschmidt VM of Norway, Felsmann AE of the Soviet Union, and Wernatsky BN. Holmes A, UK, applied the principle of radioactive metamorphosis to geochronology research. The combination of geophysical methods and geology has resulted in a series of significant discoveries. The study of seismic waves reveals the lithospheric structure of the solid earth and the differences between the oceanic and continental crust structures. The experimental study of high-temperature and high-pressure rocks provides a reliable basis for people to understand the deep geological process of the crust. All these have promoted the transition of geological research from qualitative to quantitative, and developed in both micro and macro directions.
In the 1950s and 1960s, large-scale global exploration and exploration led to the rapid development of marine geology, which shifted geological research from shallow to deep, from continents to oceans. At the same time, significant progress has been made in paleomagnetism, geothermal science, and gravimetry, providing a scientific basis for the emergence of a new global tectonic theory. On this basis, the theory of continental drift, which was put forward by Weigner A of Germany in 1912 and contradicted the traditional theory of land and sea fixation, was revived. In the early 1960s, Hess HH and Dietz RS of the United States proposed the theory of seafloor expansion, which better explained the mechanism of drift. Wilson JT of Canada proposed a transformation fault and coined the term "plate". In the mid-1960s, Morgan WJ of the United States and Le Pichon X of France proposed the theory of plate tectonics to explain the basic causes and patterns of global tectonic movement. The theory of plate tectonics is known as the new global tectonic theory, which marks the formation of a new Earth view and brings modern geological research to a new stage.
6、 The Development Trend of Modern Geology
Since the 1970s, on the one hand, the increasing demand for various types of natural resources in human society, as well as global changes and their impact on the human survival environment, have put forward higher requirements for geological research; On the other hand, the accumulation of a large amount of geological data, the intersection and infiltration of disciplines, especially the application of high-tech means such as aviation, aerospace, computers, and deep drilling, have provided more favorable development opportunities for geology. The development of modern geology has the following characteristics.
The scope and field of geological observation and research are increasingly expanding. In space, not only can people gradually reach the depths of the lithosphere through direct or indirect methods, but also some geological features of the moon, some planets in the solar system, and their satellites will be better understood. The land deep drilling technology will exceed the existing level of over 10000 meters. The secrets of the ocean crust and the extremely thick sedimentary layer located at the bottom of the continental slope will be further revealed, and the boundaries of oil development will continue to expand. At the same time, the completion of the new self contained submarine will also deepen the observation depth from the already reached 3000m to about 6000m. Except for a few particularly deep trenches, other major parts of the seabed may be observed. In terms of time, following the discovery of benthic microbiota 3.5 billion years ago, as well as the confirmation of other paleontological signs, it will deepen people's understanding of the Earth (especially the earth's crust). At the same time, the study of geological history during the period closest to human society (Quaternary) will also be more refined.
The precision and depth of geological research are continuously improving with the cooperation of multiple disciplines. The development of other disciplines such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, and the further penetration into geology, as well as the use of advanced technology in geological work, combined with detailed and in-depth field geological work, will make it possible for people to make more accurate and scientific explanations of more geological phenomena and laws, and conduct deeper human and essential research.
3. Experiment and simulation have become important means of geological research. The development of experimental geology has led to the development of geological research from focusing on field observation, description, and induction to a stage where both induction and deduction are emphasized. Further improvements in experimental technology and the application of computer models have made it possible to obtain some extreme geological conditions in the laboratory, such as high-temperature and high-pressure environments, which can simulate more complex geological processes with multiple variable factors, and incorporate time factors into simulation experiments.
4. The global tectonic theory continues to be supplemented and improved. The theory of plate tectonics has established a new Earth view and ushered in a new era of geology. However, the theory of plate tectonics is not without defects, and the interpretation of continental tectonic history based on plate theory with marine geology as the main evidence has limitations. New data from various continents about different geological historical periods will largely test and develop plate tectonics theories, which will lead to some new theories and theories.
Resources and environment are important aspects of geology in serving society. Developing earth resources and energy is a need for the development of human society, and it is also a traditional field of geology serving society. In the face of today's economic development, research on mineral resources and new energy is still in the most important position, and will continue to deepen. New progress will be made in the study of the formation mechanism of seafloor oil and gas bearing strata, as well as polymetallic nodules on the ocean floor, and modern mineralization. Starting from the entire history of regional geological development of metallogenic belts and regions in China and various continents, the regularity of regional ore formation will be studied according to different metallogenic epochs, especially the occurrence and development of ore-forming series of ore groups or cross ore groups formed under different geological backgrounds, New achievements will also be achieved. The comprehensive utilization of non-metallic deposits, radioactive deposits, geothermal resources, and other minerals will develop significantly. At the same time, due to the need for regional metallogenic research, comprehensive research on regional geology will be further strengthened, and the development of stratigraphy, paleontology, sedimentology, tectonic geology, geochronology, regional magmatic activity research, and metamorphic geology research will be promoted to a new level.
Human survival and development require not only resources, but also a good environment. The natural environment that humans rely on for their survival is the result of the long-term evolution of the Earth. The geological process of this evolution can be slow, difficult to detect, or can be rapid and catastrophic. Humans must adapt to this dynamic balancing process of the natural environment. However, what is more serious is that human beings are increasingly interfering with the natural environment in the process of resource development and economic development, which directly leads to the deterioration of the living environment. The exploitation of mineral resources and groundwater, the discharge of waste materials, and the high concentration of population and buildings caused by industrialization and urbanization all generate a series of environmental geological problems. Strengthening environmental geological investigation and research, and actively participating in the improvement and management of human survival quality are new and broad fields of geological application at present.
International cooperation has become an inevitable trend in modern geological research. The Earth is a whole, and regional geological processes are carried out under global background conditions. Regional geological processes also have an impact on the global environment. The theory of plate tectonics has established a new concept of global tectonics, which further demonstrates the importance of global macro research in geology. Therefore, since the 1970s, the geological community and the entire earth science community have promoted a large number of multidisciplinary and global investigation and research projects through international cooperation. For example, the "Deep Sea Drilling Program" (DSDP) implemented in 1968-1983 and the subsequent "Ocean Drilling Program" (ODP) confirmed seafloor expansion, revealed the history, paleoenvironment, paleoclimate, and paleontological evolution of the ocean, investigated submarine volcanic eruptions, sedimentation, and distribution of seafloor minerals, and established "Paleoceanography.". The International Geological Correlation Program (IGCP), established in 1973, aims to solve relevant geological problems through international research, discover potential mineral and energy resources, determine the relationship between lithostratigraphic units worldwide and geological times, promote the application of new technologies and research equipment, and disseminate scientific knowledge and research tools to developing countries. In 1994, its goal was adjusted to focus more on new scientific developments and concepts to understand the events and processes that control human living conditions, and it was renamed the "International Geological Correlation Program - Geoscience for Social Service (IGCP: